The Role of Dna Technology in Crime Investigation Essay Example

The Role of Dna Technology in Crime Investigation Essay Example The Role of Dna Technology in Crime Investigation Essay The Role of Dna Technology in Crime Investigation Essay DNA profiling DNA profiling (also called DNA testing, DNA typing, or genetic fingerprinting) is a technique employed by forensic scientists to assist in the identification of individuals on the basis of their respective DNA profiles. DNA profiles are encrypted sets of numbers that reflect a persons DNA makeup, which can also be used as the persons identifier. DNA profiling should not be confused with full genome sequencing. It is used in, for example, parental testing and rape investigation. Although 99. 9% of human DNA sequences are the same in every person, enough of the DNA is different to distinguish one individual from another.DNA profiling uses repetitive (repeat) sequences that are highly variable called variable number tandem repeats (VNTR). VNTRs loci are very similar between closely related humans, but so variable that unrelated individuals are extremely unlikely to have the same VNTRs. The DNA profiling technique was first reported in 1984by Sir Alec Jeffreys at the Univer sity of Leicester in England, and is now the basis of several national DNA databases. Dr. Jeffreyss genetic fingerprinting was made commercially available in 1987, when a chemical company, ICI, started a blood-testing center in England.DNA profiling process The process begins with a sample of an individuals DNA (typically called a reference sample). The most desirable method of collecting a reference sample is the use of a buccal swab, as this reduces the possibility of contamination. When this is not available (e. g. because a court order may be needed and not obtainable) other methods may need to be used to collect a sample of blood, saliva, semen, or other appropriate fluid or tissue from personal items (e. g. toothbrush, razor, etc. ) or from stored samples (e. g. banked sperm or biopsy tissue).Samples obtained from blood relatives (biological relative) can provide an indication of an individuals profile, as could human remains which had been previously profiled. A reference sam ple is then analyzed to create the individuals DNA profile using one of a number of techniques, discussed below. The DNA profile is then compared against another sample to determine whether there is a genetic match. * RFLP analysis The first methods for finding out genetics used for DNA profiling involved restriction enzyme digestion, followed by Southern blot analysis.Although polymorphisms can exist in the restriction enzyme cleavage sites, more commonly the enzymes and DNA probes were used to analyze VNTR loci. However, the Southern blot technique is laborious, and requires large amounts of undegraded sample DNA. Also, Karl Browns original technique looked at many minisatellite loci at the same time, increasing the observed variability, but making it hard to discern individual alleles (and thereby precluding parental testing). These early techniques have been supplanted by PCR-based assays. PCR analysis With the invention of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique, DNA prof iling took huge strides forward in both discriminating power and the ability to recover information from very small (or degraded) starting samples. PCR greatly amplifies the amounts of a specific region of DNA, using oligonucleotide primers and a thermostable DNA polymerase. Early assays such as the HLA-DQ alpha reverse dot blot strips grew to be very popular due to their ease of use, and the speed with which a result could be obtained.However they were not as discriminating as RFLP. It was also difficult to determine a DNA profile for mixed samples, such as a vaginal swab from a sexual assault victim. Fortunately, the PCR method is readily adaptable for analyzing VNTR loci. In the United States the FBI has standardized a set of 13 VNTR assays for DNA typing, and has organized the CODIS database for forensic identification in criminal cases. Similar assays and databases have been set up in other countries. Also, commercial kits are available that analyze single-nucleotide polymorphi sms (SNPs).These kits use PCR to amplify specific regions with known variations and hybridize them to probes anchored on cards, which results in a colored spot corresponding to the particular sequence variation. * STR analysis The method of DNA profiling used today is based on PCR and uses short tandem repeats (STR). This method uses highly polymorphic regions that have short repeated sequences of DNA (the most common is 4 bases repeated, but there are other lengths in use, including 3 and 5 bases).Because unrelated people almost certainly have different numbers of repeat units, STRs can be used to discriminate between unrelated individuals. These STR loci (locations on a chromosome) are targeted with sequence-specific primers and amplified using PCR. The DNA fragments that result are then separated and detected using electrophoresis. There are two common methods of separation and detection, capillary electrophoresis (CE) and gel electrophoresis. Each STR is polymorphic, however, th e number of alleles is small. Typically each STR allele will be shared by around 5 20% of individuals.The power of STR analysis comes from looking at multiple STR loci simultaneously. The pattern of alleles can identify an individual quite accurately. Thus STR analysis provides an excellent identification tool. The more STR regions that are tested in an individual the more discriminating the test becomes. From country to country, different STR-based DNA-profiling systems are in use. In North America, systems which amplify the CODIS 13 core loci are almost universal, while in the UK the SGM+ system (which is compatible with The National DNA Database), is in use.Whichever system is used, many of the STR regions used are the same. These DNA-profiling systems are based on multiplex reactions, whereby many STR regions will be tested at the same time. The true power of STR analysis is in its statistical power of discrimination. Because the 13 loci that are currently used for discriminati on in CODIS are independently assorted (having a certain number of repeats at one locus doesnt change the likelihood of having any number of repeats at any other locus), the product rule for probabilities can be applied.This means that if someone has the DNA type of ABC, where the three loci were independent, we can say that the probability of having that DNA type is the probability of having type A times the probability of having type B times the probability of having type C. This has resulted in the ability to generate match probabilities of 1 in a quintillion (1 with 18 zeros after it) or more. However, DNA database searches showed much more frequent than expected false DNA matches including one perfect 13 locus match out of only 30,000 DNA samples in Maryland in January 2007.Moreover, since there are about 12 million monozygotic twins on Earth, that theoretical probability is useless. For example, the actual probability that 2 random people have the same DNA depends on whether t here were twins or triplets (etc. ) in the family, and the number of loci used in the test. Where twins are common, the probability of matching the DNA is 22 in 1000, or about 2. 2 in 100 will have matching DNA. In practice, the risk of contaminated-matching is much greater than matching a distant relative, such as a sample being contaminated from nearby objects, or from left-over cells transferred from a prior test.Logically, the risk is greater for matching the most common person in the samples: everything collected from, or in contact with, a victim is a major source of contamination for any other samples brought into a lab. For that reason, multiple control-samples are typically tested, to ensure that they stayed clean, when prepared during the same period as the actual test samples. Unexpected matches (or variations) in several control-samples indicates a high probability of contamination for the actual test samples.In a relationship test, the full DNA profiles should differ (e xcept for twins), to prove that a person wasnt actually matched as being related to their own DNA in another sample. * AmpFLP Another technique, AmpFLP, or amplified fragment length polymorphism was also put into practice during the early 1990s. This technique was also faster than RFLP analysis and used PCR to amplify DNA samples. It relied on variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) polymorphisms to distinguish various alleles, which were separated on a polyacrylamide gel using an allelic ladder (as opposed to a molecular weight ladder).Bands could be visualized by silver staining the gel. One popular locus for fingerprinting was the D1S80 locus. As with all PCR based methods, highly degraded DNA or very small amounts of DNA may cause allelic dropout (causing a mistake in thinking a heterozygote is a homozygote) or other stochastic effects. In addition, because the analysis is done on a gel, very high number repeats may bunch together at the top of the gel, making it difficult to resol ve. AmpFLP analysis can be highly automated, and allows for easy creation of phylogenetic trees based on comparing individual samples of DNA.Due to its relatively low cost and ease of set-up and operation, AmpFLP remains popular in lower income countries. DNA family relationship analysis Using PCR technology, DNA analysis is widely applied to determine genetic family relationships such as paternity, maternity, siblingship and other kinships. During conception, the father’s sperm cell and the mother’s egg cell, each containing half the amount of DNA found in other body cells, meet and fuse to form a fertilized egg, called a zygote.The zygote contains a complete set of DNA molecules, a unique combination of DNA from both parents. This zygote divides and multiplies into an embryo and later, a full human being. DNA does not change once it is formed at conception. At each stage of development, all the cells forming the body contain the same DNA- half from the father and hal f from the mother. This fact allows the relationship testing to use all types of all samples including loose cells from the cheeks collected using buccal swabs, blood or other types of samples.While a lot of DNA contains information for a certain function, there is some called junk DNA, which is currently used for human identification. At some special locations (called loci) in the junk DNA, predictable inheritance patterns were found to be useful in determining biological relationships. These locations contain specific DNA markers that DNA scientists use to identify individuals. In a routine DNA paternity test, the markers used are Short Tandem Repeats (STRs), short pieces of DNA that occur in highly differential repeat patterns among individuals.Each person’s DNA contains two copies of these markers- one copy inherited from the father and one from the mother. Within a population, the markers at each person’s DNA location could differ in length and sometimes sequence, depending on the markers inherited from the parents. The combination of marker sizes found in each person makes up his/her unique genetic profile. When determining the relationship between two individuals, their genetic profiles are compared to see if they share the same inheritance patterns at a statistically conclusive rate.For example, the following sample report from this commercial DNA paternity testing laboratory Universal Genetics signifies how relatedness between parents and child is identified on those special markers: |DNA Marker |Mother |Child |Alleged father | |D21S11 |28, 30 |28, 31 |29, 31 | |D7S820 |9, 10 |10, 11 |11, 12 | |TH01 |14, 15 |14, 16 |15, 16 | |D13S317 |7, 8 |7, 9 |8, 9 |D19S433 |14, 16. 2 |14, 15 |15, 17 | The partial results indicate that the child and the alleged father’s DNA match among these five markers. The complete test results show this correlation on 16 markers between the child and the tested man to draw a conclusion of whether or not the man is the biological father. Scientifically, each marker is assigned with a Paternity Index (PI), which is a statistical measure of how powerfully a match at a particular marker indicates paternity.The PI of each marker is multiplied with each other to generate the Combined Paternity Index (CPI), which indicates the overall probability of an individual being the biological father of the tested child relative to any random man from the entire population of the same race. The CPI is then converted into a Probability of Paternity showing the degree of relatedness between the alleged father and child. The DNA test report in other family relationship tests, such as grandparentage and siblingship tests, is similar to a paternity test report. Instead of the Combined Paternity Index, a different value, such as a Siblingship Index, is reported.The report shows the genetic profiles of each tested person. If there are markers shared among the tested individuals, the probability of biological relationship is calculated to determine how likely the tested individuals share the same markers due to a blood relationship. * Y-chromosome analysis Recent innovations have included the creation of primers targeting polymorphic regions on the Y-chromosome (Y-STR), which allows resolution of a mixed DNA sample from a male and female and/or cases in which a differential extraction is not possible.Y-chromosomes are paternally inherited, so Y-STR analysis can help in the identification of paternally related males. Y-STR analysis was performed in the Sally Hemings controversy to determine if Thomas Jefferson had sired a son with one of his slaves. * Mitochondrial analysis For highly degraded samples, it is sometimes impossible to get a complete profile of the 13 CODIS STRs. In these situations, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is sometimes typed due to there being many copies of mtDNA in a cell, while there may only be 1-2 copies of the nuclear DNA.Forensic scientists amplify the HV1 and HV2 regions of the mtDNA, then sequence each region and compare single-nucleotide differences to a reference. Because mtDNA is maternally inherited, directly linked maternal relatives can be used as match references, such as ones maternal grandmothers daughters son. A difference of two or more nucleotides is generally considered to be an exclusion. Heteroplasmy and poly-C differences may throw off straight sequence comparisons, so some expertise on the part of the analyst is required. tDNA is useful in determining clear identities, such as those of missing people when a maternally linked relative can be found. mtDNA testing was used in determining that Anna Anderson was not the Russian princess she had claimed to be, Anastasia Romanov. mtDNA can be obtained from such material as hair shafts and old bones/teeth.. DNA databases There are now several DNA databases in existence around the world. Some are private, but most of the largest databases are government controlled. The United States maintains the largest DNA database, with the Combined DNA Index System, holding over 5 million records as of 2007.The United Kingdom maintains the National DNA Database (NDNAD), which is of similar size, despite the UKs smaller population. The size of this database, and its rate of growth, is giving concern to civil liberties groups in the UK, where police have wide-ranging powers to take samples and retain them even in the event of acquittal. The U. S. Patriot Act of the United States provides a means for the U. S. government to get DNA samples from other countries if they are either a division of, or head office of, a company operating in the U. S.Under the act, the American offices of the company cant divulge to their subsidiaries/offices in other countries the reasons that these DNA samples are sought or by whom. When a match is made from a National DNA Databank to link a crime scene to an offender who has provided a DNA Sample to a databank that link is often referred to as a cold hit. A cold hit is of value in referring the police agency to a specific suspect but is of less evidential value than a DNA match made from outside the DNA Databank. Considerations when evaluating DNA evidenceIn the early days of the use of genetic fingerprinting as criminal evidence, juries were often swayed by spurious statistical arguments by defense lawyers along these lines: given a match that had a 1 in 5 million probability of occurring by chance, the lawyer would argue that this meant that in a country of say 60 million people there were 12 people who would also match the profile. This was then translated to a 1 in 12 chance of the suspect being the guilty one. This argument is not sound unless the suspect was drawn at random from the population of the country.In fact, a jury should consider how likely it is that an individual matching the genetic profile would also have been a suspect in the case for other reasons. Another spurious statistical argument is based on the false assumption that a 1 in 5 million probability of a match automatically translates into a 1 in 5 million probability of innocence and is known as the prosecutors fallacy. When using RFLP, the theoretical risk of a coincidental match is 1 in 100 billion (100,000,000,000), although the practical risk is actually 1 in 1000 because monozygotic twins are 0. % of the human population. Moreover, the rate of laboratory error is almost certainly higher than this, and often actual laboratory procedures do not reflect the theory under which the coincidence probabilities were computed. For example, the coincidence probabilities may be calculated based on the probabilities that markers in two samples have bands in precisely the same location, but a laboratory worker may conclude that similar- but not precisely identical- band patterns result from identical genetic samples with some imperfection in the agarose gel.However, in this case, the laboratory worker increases the coincidence risk by expanding the criteria for declaring a match. Recent studies have quoted relatively high error rates which may be cause for concern. In the early days of genetic fingerprinting, the necessary population data to accurately compute a match probability was sometimes unavailable. Between 1992 and 1996, arbitrary low ceilings were controversially put on match probabilities used in RFLP analysis rather than the higher theoretically computed ones. Today, RFLP has become widely disused due to the advent of more discriminating, sensitive and easier technologies.STRs do not suffer from such subjectivity and provide similar power of discrimination (1 in 10^13 for unrelated individuals if using a full SGM+ profile) It should be noted that figures of this magnitude are not considered to be statistically supportable by scientists in the UK, for unrelated individuals with full matching DNA profiles a match probability of 1 in a billion is considered statistically supportable (Since 1998 the DNA pr ofiling system supported by The National DNA Database in the UK is the SGM+ DNA profiling system which includes 10 STR regions and a sex indicating test.However, with any DNA technique, the cautious juror should not convict on genetic fingerprint evidence alone if other factors raise doubt. Contamination with other evidence (secondary transfer) is a key source of incorrect DNA profiles and raising doubts as to whether a sample has been adulterated is a favorite defense technique. More rarely, chimerism is one such instance where the lack of a genetic match may unfairly exclude a suspect. Evidence of genetic relationship Its also possible to use DNA profiling as evidence of genetic relationship, but testing that shows no relationship isnt absolutely certain.While almost all individuals have a single and distinct set of genes, rare individuals, known as chimeras, have at least two different sets of genes. There have been several cases of DNA profiling that falsely proved that a mother was unrelated to her children. Fake DNA evidence The value of DNA evidence has to be seen in light of recent cases where criminals planted fake DNA samples at crime scenes. In one case, a criminal even planted fake DNA evidence in his own body: Dr. John Schneeberger raped one of his sedated patients in 1992 and left semen on her underwear.Police drew what they believed to be Schneebergers blood and compared its DNA against the crime scene semen DNA on three occasions, never showing a match. It turned out that he had surgically inserted a Penrose drain into his arm and filled it with foreign blood and anticoagulants. In a study conducted by the life science company Nucleix and published in the journal Forensic Science International, scientists found that an In vitro synthesized sample of DNA matching any desired genetic profile can be constructed using standard molecular biology techniques without obtaining any actual tissue from that person.Development of artificial DNA In August 2 009, scientists in Israel stunned the forensic sciences and raised serious questions concerning the use of DNA by law enforcement as the ultimate method of identification. In a paper published in the journal Forensic Science International: Genetics, the Israeli researchers demonstrated that it is possible to manufacture DNA in a laboratory, and thus falsify DNA evidence. The scientists fabricated saliva and blood samples, which originally contained DNA from a person other than the ostensible donor of the blood and saliva.The researchers also showed that, using a DNA database, it is possible to take information from a profile and manufacture DNA to match it, and that this can be done without access to any actual DNA from the person whose DNA they are duplicating. The synthetic DNA oligos required for the procedure are common in molecular laboratories. Dr. Daniel Frumkin, lead author on the paper, was quoted in The New York Times as saying, You can just engineer a crime scene any biol ogy undergraduate could perform this. Dr.Frumkin perfected a test that can forensically differentiate real DNA samples from fake ones. His test uses epigenetic modifications, in particular, DNA methylation. Seventy percent of the DNA in any human genome is methylated, meaning it contains methyl group modifications within a CpG dinucleotide context. Methylation at the promoter region is associated with gene silencing. The synthetic DNA lacks this epigenetic modification, which allows the test to distinguish manufactured DNA from original, genuine, DNA.It is unknown how many, if any, police departments currently use the test, which appears to be a serious issue in light of Frumkin’s claim that the DNA manufacturing procedure is within the grasp of any undergraduate biology student. No police lab has publicly announced that it is using the new test to verify DNA results, while FSI Genetics says that any forensic laboratory doing DNA identification should adopt this test to auth enticate its results as real DNA. Cases In the 1950s, Anna Anderson claimed that she was Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia; in the 1980s after her death, samples of her tissue that had been stored at a Charlottesville, Virginia hospital following a medical procedure were tested using DNA fingerprinting and showed that she bore no relation to the Romanovs. In 1986, Richard Buckland was exonerated despite having admitted to the rape and murder of a teenager near Leicester, the city where DNA profiling was first discovered. This was the first use of DNA finger printing in a criminal investigation. In 1987 it was the first time genetic fingerprinting was used in criminal court where a man accused of unlawful intercourse with a mentally handicapped 14-year-old female who gave birth to his baby. In 1987, in the same case as Buckland, British baker Colin Pitchfork was the first criminal caught and convicted using DNA fingerprinting In 1987, Florida rapist Tommy Lee Andrews was t he first person in the United States to be convicted as a result of DNA evidence, for raping a woman during a burglary; he was convicted on 6 November 1987 and sentenced to 22 years in prison. In 1988, Timothy Spencer was the first man in Virginia to be sentenced to death through DNA testing, for several rape and murder charges; he was dubbed The South Side Strangler because he killed victims on the southside of Richmond, Virginia. He was later charged with rape and 1st degree murder and was sentenced to death. He was executed on April 27, 1994. David Vasquez, initially convicted of one of Spencers crimes, became the first man in America exonerated based on DNA evidence. In 1992, DNA evidence was used to prove that Nazi doctor Josef Mengele was buried in Brazil under the name Wolfgang Gerhard. The Role of the Forensic Geneticist Forensic genetics is the study of DNA characteristics and patterns. The scientific knowledge base of a forensic geneticist can have different applications i n fields such as law enforcement and anthropology. One of the functions of a forensic geneticist is to examine and profile DNA evidence from a crime scene in order to determine the presence of a suspect.In another discipline such as anthropology, the geneticist may study historical human migration patterns by comparing DNA in diverse racial groups. Because DNA marking and profiling has a small margin of error, its results can be questioned. * Criminal Forensics All DNA contains sequences of nucleotides which have a unique recurring pattern for each person. A forensic geneticist first obtains a sample of DNA from a sample of tissue, bodily fluid or hair. The repeating nucleotide sequences found in the sample are then cut with specialized proteins and isolated.The sample is then probed by special DNA molecules which have been extracted from a known donor. If the probe DNA matches the sample nucleotides collected from a crime scene, then it theoretically places the donor at the scene i tself. * Victim Identification DNA can also be used to identify human remains where decomposition has left the body unrecognizable, or where dental records do not exist. Typically DNA from the unknown remains is matched with a sample of verified DNA from a missing person, or can be compared against possible family members.Genetic matching are also tools in paternity tests. Forensic Genetics has also been employed in identifying victims of war crimes located in mass graves. * Forensic Anthropology One of the most recent fields in anthropology has been the study of ancient human migrations. Using mitochondrial DNA (which is only passed down through the mother) and Y-chromosomal DNA (inherited through the father) forensic geneticists have been able to chart the course of human migrations out of the Africa over the last 60,000 years.This is accomplished by examining mutations of the two kinds of DNA, which occur rarely and only over an average number of generations. The divergence of mu tations in different existing ethnic groups can be compared and a rough chronological and geographical chart of migration is then laid out. * Accuracy in Criminal Investigation Findings by an Arizona crime lab analyst suggest that even if an overall DNA profile is unique to an individual, certain portions of it are similar to family members, and possibly (by coincidence) to unrelated individuals.This has the potential to challenge the widespread belief that DNA profiling is a foolproof tool in criminal investigations. Doubts can potentially be raised about whether a DNA profile for a suspect really belongs to that individual. How genetic engineering or DNA technology may help in crime investigation? agriculture? and medicine? DNA technology can help with crime investigation to help find a criminal who has left bodily fluid at a crime scene. They use DNA tests to find a match. Genetic engineering can be used in agriculture to create a crop that is superior to other crops.It can make a plant stronger and larger, etc. Genetic engineering in medicine is being used to help a couple who is trying to have a baby. If the one of the parents has a disease (such as Huntingtons, Parkinsons, etc. ) to create a baby that doesnt have the disease. The children are called designer babies. Law the Genetics of Identity: The Science of DNA Fingerprinting New Noteworthy, 2007 In Law and The Genetics of Identity, The DNA Files looked at DNA forensics, privacy and the law.There are many ways in which experts use genetic techniques for identification purposes, from identifying missing persons to solving criminal investigations. DNA evidence arguably has become the best-known type of forensic evidence, made more recognizable by popular television programs (including three CSIs and four Law Orders). Although the forensic tools used on TV allow detectives to solve horrendous crimes in under an hour, real-life techniques do require a few days. A DNA profile is a composite of about 13 areas of highly variable short tandem repeats (STRs) that characterize each individual.While humans share a vast majority of our DNA sequence with one another, some sections of our non-coding DNA are unique. Using DNA profiling techniques, it is possible to establish a likely match. The International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP) was created in 1996 as a result of the conflicts related to Bosnia-Herzegovina, the Republic of Croatia, and Republic of Serbia from 1991 to 1995. The ICMP uses DNA as a means to identify victims of war atrocities and natural disasters. As of April 2006, the ICMP had helped identify 902 people who had died in the 2004 South Asian tsunami.In 2005, the ICMP partnered with Louisiana health officials to perform DNA tests on 256 bone samples from Katrina victims. Forensic specialists created DNA profiles from these bone samples then sent the data to Louisiana authorities for matching with family members DNA samples there. In recent years, researchers and policing organizations also have made significant inroads in criminal investigation methods. New forensic polymerase chain reaction (PCR), STR, and mtDNA techniques have sped up analysis of a DNA profile extracted from crime scene evidence.What once took between 6 and 8 weeks now takes between 1 and 2 days. Scientists hope that someday it will take only a few hours to generate a DNA profile from a sample. According to President George W. Bushs DNA Initiative in 2003, one of the biggest problems facing the criminal justice system today is the substantial backlog of unanalyzed DNA samples and biological evidence from crime scenes, especially in sexual assault and murder cases. Timely analysis of these samples can help police arrest and detain potentially violent offenders or solve no-suspect cases.While timely analysis is important, identifying the correct person is even more important. Opponents of DNA profiling point out that case-specific issues and problems often damage the quali ty and relevance of DNA test results. The increased use of genetic technologies in crime investigation has contributed to many forensic databases, including two run by the Federal Bureau of Investigation: the Automated Fingerprint Identification System, which catalogs millions of fingerprints, and the Combined DNA Index System (CODIS).CODIS was once reserved for those convicted of violent offenses, but the 2004 Justice for All Act expanded the database so states can now upload profiles of almost anyone charged with any crime. In 2006, the FBI opened its DNA database to kinship DNA matching. A DNA sample from a crime scene that fails to be an exact match to any profile in a forensic database can now be used to find possible relatives that are in the database. Opponents fear that partial matches violate protection by the U.S. Constitution against unreasonable search and seizure and undermine the principle of presumptive innocence. Genetic techniques can also be used to exonerate a per son convicted of a crime. As of October 2007, the Innocence Project, founded by Barry C. Scheck and Peter J. Neufeld at the Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law at Yeshiva University in New York, had helped exonerate 208 people in the United States using DNA testing, including 15 who served time on death row.Byron Halsey, for instance, who narrowly escaped the death penalty when he was convicted in 1988 of the brutal sexual assault and murder of two young children in New Jersey, was fully exonerated in July 2007 based on DNA evidence. DNA can also help bring closure to cases that have gone cold. In 2006, after almost 30 years of dead ends, investigators in Virginia used carefully preserved blood taken from a 1977 crime scene in order to identify and arrest a suspect in the killing of Henry William Long.Questions surrounding the social, ethical, and legal issues of using genetic technologies in crime investigation persist. In a few cases, geographic and ethnic genetic testing have been applied to criminal investigations to help narrow the suspect search field. Critics fear that the information gathered and stored in this type of testing could be used for research on topics such as the genetic correlates of ethnicity or criminal behavior, fueling flawed science and dangerous prejudices. These

Bin Ladens 1996 Declaration of War on the U.S.

Bin Ladens 1996 Declaration of War on the U.S. On August 23, 1996, Osama bin Laden signed and issued the Declaration of Jihad Against the Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holy Mosques, meaning Saudi Arabia. It was the first of two explicit declarations of war against the United States. The declaration summed up bin Ladens belief, categorical and uncompromising, that there is nothing more imperative, after faith, than to repel the aggressor who corrupts religion and life, unconditionally, as far as possible. In that line was the seed of bin Ladens stance that even the killing of innocent civilians was justified in defense of the faith. American forces were encamped in Saudi Arabia since 1990 when Operation Desert Shield became the first step in the war to oust Saddam Husseins army from Kuwait. Abiding by extreme interpretations of Islam that the overwhelming majority of Muslim clerics around the world reject, bin Laden considered the presence of foreign troops on Saudi soil an affront to Islam. He had, in 1990, approached the Saudi government and offered to organize his own campaign to oust Saddam Hussein from Kuwait. The government politely rebuffed the offer. Until 1996, bin Laden, at least in the Western press, was an obscure figure occasionally referred to as a Saudi financier and militant. He was blamed for two bombings in Saudi Arabia in the previous eight months, including a bombing in Dhahran that killed 19 Americans. Bin Laden denied involvement. He was also known as one of the sons of Mohammed bin Laden, the developer and founder of the Bin laden Group and one of the richest men in Saudi Arabia outside the royal family. The bin Laden Group is still Saudi Arabias leading construction firm. By 1996, bin laden had been expelled from Saudi Arabia, his Saudi passport having been revoked in 1994, and expelled from Sudan, where he had established terrorist training camps and various legitimate businesses. He was welcomed by the Taliban in Afghanistan, but not exclusively out of the goodness of Mullah Omar, the Taliban leader. To maintain good graces with the Taliban, Steve Coll writes in The bin Ladens, a history of the bin Laden clan (V iking Press, 2008), Osama had to raise about $20 million per year for training camps, weapons, salaries, and subsidies for the families of volunteers. [...] Some of these budgets overlapped with business and construction projects Osama engaged in to please Mullah Omar. Yet bin Laden felt isolated in Afghanistan, marginalized and irrelevant. The declaration of jihad was the first of two explicit declarations of war against the United States. Fund-raising may very well have been part of the motive: by raising his profile, bin Laden was also drawing more interest from the sympathetic charities and individuals underwriting his efforts in Afghanistan. The second declaration of war was to be delivered in February 1998 and would include the West and Israel, giving certain donors even more incentive to contribute to the cause. By declaring war on the United States from a cave in Afghanistan, wrote Lawrence Wright in The Looming Tower, bin Laden assumed the role of an uncorrupted, indomitable primitive standing against the awesome power of the secular, scientific, technological Goliath; he was fighting modernity itself. It did not matter that bin Laden, the construction magnate, had built the cave using heavy machinery and that he had proceeded to outfit it with computers and advanced communications devices. The stance of the primitive was appealingly potent, especially to people who had been let down by modernity; however, the mind that understood such symbolism, and how it could be manipulated, was sophisticated and modern in the extreme. Bin Laden issued the 1996 declaration from the southern mountains of Afghanistan. It appeared on Aug. 31 in al Quds, a newspaper published in London. The response from the Clinton administration was close to indifferent. American forces in Saudi Arabia had been on a higher state of alert since the bombings, but bin Ladens threats changed nothing. Read the Text of bin Ladens 1996 Jihad Declaration

Medical uses of algae Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words - 1

Medical uses of algae - Research Paper Example They include both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Algae both live and dead are being used by the humans. The fossil algal diatomite deposits in the shape of light but strong rocks are used as building materials and filtration media in water purification systems and swimming pools. Some fossil algae like Botryococcus are sources oil-rich deposits. Some other species of green algae are grown for obtaining bio chemicals for applications in medicine and cosmetics. The nuisance blue-green algae have beneficial uses especially Spirulina which is used as dietary supplement. The blue-green algae are better known as fresh water nuisance organisms which form as dense blooms affecting human activities through toxins generated by them, by clogging water courses and affecting recreational activities (Bellinger and Sigee). Alage has been described as organisms containing chlorophyll made up of one cell or grouped together in colonies or with many cells and at times joining together as simple tissues. Their sizes vary from unicellular of 3-10 um microns to giant kelps up to 70 mg long capable of growing 50 cm per day. They are found all over the earth in the sea, rivers, and lakes, also on soils and walls, in animal and plants (as symbionts-partners collaborating together) and it can just grow anywhere where light is available to conduct photosynthesis. Thus, alage are heterogeneous and identified in two major types: microalgae and microalgae. Microalgae grow in bentheic and littoral habitats and also in the ocean waters as Phytoplankton that comprises species such as diatoms, (bacillariophyta), dinoflagellates (dinophyta), green and yellow-brown flagellates (Chlorophyta; prasino-phyta; prymnesiophyta; cryptophyta, chrysophyta and rhaphdiophyta) and blue-green algae (cyano-phyta) (Gamal 1). Microalgal phyla provide chemical and pharmacological compounds besides bioactive compounds of marine resources back to compounds marine

International Business and Global Strategy Essay

International Business and Global Strategy - Essay Example As labor productivity rises, cost of production falls and producers profit rises (Baumol & Blinder, 2010). This leads to hike in overall wage rate in the economy. With rise in profit, there is technological advancement in the productive process and also capital per worker rises since the producer gets the incentive to expand production. This again boosts labor productivity (Bruce, 2004). When NAFTA was signed this fact raised concern since with lower productivity per worker the Mexican industries would deteriorate under free trade. 2. The Heckscher-Ohlin theorem explains that when a country engages in trade with another country, it would export those goods that utilize higher quantity of those factors of production, that are available in abundance in the country and would import those goods, production of which require relatively higher amounts of factor that is relatively scarce in the country (Arora, 2007). In simple terms, a country would export capital intensive commodities if th e capital to labor ratio is higher in the country compared to labor to capital ratio (Cherunilam, 2008). However, there is considerable debate regarding the validity of the Heckscher-Ohlin theorem. ... , although the United States has been acknowledged as a capital abundant country since the time of World War 2, it imports capital-intensive goods while exporting labor-intensive goods (Iastate, n.d.). Several economists have tried to provide an explanation for this paradoxical result, including Leontief himself. One reason behind this result is the notion of demand reversal. According to this concept, the US has relatively higher preference for capital intensive commodities. This raises price of capital while the price of labor is ultimately lower than capital. This indicates that US follows the H-O theorem while exporting labor intensive goods. Secondly, it is also argued that the US is a skill abundant country. Therefore, following the H-O theory the US exports labor intensive commodities. Although these explanations corroborate the H-O theorem, it is undoubted that the theorem in its own accord falls short of describing the pattern of international trade. Most of the assumptions underlying this theory are not realistic, such as; all countries do not have identical technology of production and all production processes do not follow constant returns to scale. Hence, according to my opinion, the H-O theorem needs to be reframed so as to be able to make more accurate predictions about international trade. 3. Flexible exchange rate system refers to the monetary system in which rate of exchange between two currencies belonging to two different countries is determined by market forces, i.e., the â€Å"forces of demand and supply† (Siddaiah, 2010, p. 43) existing in these countries. This system of determination of exchange rate between two currencies allows the foreign exchange market to determine actual worth of a currency. Therefore, changes automatically occur in the

2008 Presidential Debates Essay Example for Free

2008 Presidential Debates Essay The October 7 debate, sponsored by the Commission on Presidential Debates, took place in Belmont University, Nashville, Tennessee and Tom Brokaw (NBC News) was the moderator. Questions were selected from thousands of online messages and were based on domestic and foreign policy. Overall, the issue that dominated the debate was the economy with both candidates pointing out the mistakes of the past and laying down their plan for the future. Senator Obama and McCain on the economy Senator Obama started with pointing out that the country is in the worst economic crisis since the Great Depression and people are worried by about their jobs, pensions and their ability to send their children to schools. Senator Obama stated that the crisis was as a result of failed economic policies of the George Bush regime. Obama emphasized on regulating Wall Street, cracking down on CEOs and making sure they dont get bonuses and giving the middle class tax cuts. Senator McCain puts the blame on the democrats in the senate and in the congress who defended Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. Senator McCain plan is to stabilize home values and buy up bad loans. He also does not propose any tax cuts or increases. Senator Obama and McCain on energy Senator McCains plan is to enhance the use of nuclear energy since it is, as he puts it, safe and reliable. An added advantage of nuclear energy, according to him, is that the nuclear fuel spent can be reprocessed. Senator Obama puts energy among his top priority issues should he go ahead and win the presidency. He states that high gas prices are not only a strain to the family budget but also a threat to national security since countries like Russia and Venezuela were benefiting from high oil prices. Obama proposes a $15 billion ten year plan to guarantee independence from Middle Eastern oil. Senator Obama and McCain on health care Senator Obama proposes to lower the cost of premiums by up to $2,500 a year by investing in prevention. He puts emphasis on using information technology so that medical records are put in computers rather than in hospital forms. Senator McCain notes how everyone is struggling with health care and proposes giving every American a $5,000 refundable tax credit so that they can get their health care insurance. The October 15 debate took place in Hofstra University, Hempstead, New York and Bob Schieffer (CBS News) was the moderator. Focus on that day was on domestic policy. Senator McCain and Obama on economy Senator McCain once again blamed the input that Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac had that caused the housing market to collapse. Of the $700 billion allocated, McCain proposes to use 300 of that to buy the home loan mortgages and negotiate with home owners. Senator Obama reiterates that the financial rescue plan is an important step and proposes ending tax breaks for companies shipping jobs oversees and provide tax credit for companies creating jobs domestically. Senator Obama and McCain on energy Senator McCain plans to stop spending $700 billion annually in other countries on energy. He plans on investing in wind, tide, natural gas, nuclear and offshore drilling. He also suggests that Senator Obama is opposed to such initiatives. Senator Obama says that investing in a serious energy policy should help America to stop borrowing from China and spending in Saudi Arabia. Senator Obama and McCain on climate change The issue of energy and climate change goes hand in hand. Obama again talks of his plan to stop foreign oil dependence and making the oil companies drill from their unused land. He also says that he has focused on putting resource into solar, wind, bio-diesel and geothermal. Senator McCain points out the importance of starting offshore drilling right away.

Krakauers Into Thin Air and Boukreevs The Climb Essay -- Mountain Cl

Krakauer's Into Thin Air and Boukreev's The Climb On the day of May 10, 1996, several climbers were attempting to descend the slopes of Mount Everest in blizzard conditions: a time at which every moment mattered. Emerging from the pack, two climbers reached the safety of the tents of Camp Four before the majority of their teammates. Anatoli Boukreev and Jon Krakauer recounted the situation of that day in very different ways, but Krakauer seemed to portray Boukreev as an antagonist in his book, Into Thin Air. Boukreev proved in his own book, The Climb, that multiple actions called into question by Krakauer were in fact valuable steps that an experienced climber used in order to rescue clients in need. Krakauer repeatedly scolded Boukreev for not using supplemental oxygen above Camp Four during the summit push on May 10. Krakauer claimed that the lack of oxygen "didn't seem to be in their clients' best interests" (ITA, 186). The journalist seemed to be concerned that Boukreev, as a guide, should use oxygen because it would allow him to function more normally in the case of catastrophe. In fact, Boukreev disputed this point in The Climb, mentioning that he believed given proper acclimatization, it was safer to climb without oxygen. Krakauer himself suffered when he ran out of oxygen just before the South Summit: "entire sectors of my cerebral cortex seemed to have shut down altogether. Dizzy, fearing that I would black out, I was frantic to reach the South Summit." (ITA, 195) Boukreev believed that a climber who suddenly ran out of oxygen after consuming a tank would be in a much worse situation than one who had become used to climbing without gas at all. His decision not to use gas was primarily based on his past experience. Expedition leader Scott Fischer had allowed Boukreev to summit without oxygen, knowing that he had already reached the top of the world twice without it (ITA, 186). Fischer had even considered reaching the summit without oxygen himself. The Russian climber used the philosophy that "every ounce counts" while ascending a mountain; even the slightest extra weight would have a profound effect on the climbing ability of an individual. Though he did not use oxygen above Camp Four, Boukreev carried a single canister of oxygen with him in case of emergency; he gave it to fellow guide Neal Beidleman when the need arose. Since each canist... ... only a couple members to even attempt a rescue. These efforts were, for the most part, shrugged off by Krakauer. The Climb offers great detail of Boukreev's forays into the blizzard, and the resulting rescue of a group of climbers huddling together in the frigid temperatures. Both Charlotte Fox and Sandy Hill Pittman, members of the group, were close to dying; Boukreev quoted Lene Gammelgaard as saying, "Sandy very close [to dying]. Maybe if you will find, you will find her dead. And you need hurry." (Climb, 184) Boukreev single-handedly saved all members of the group except climber Yasuko Namba despite the intolerable conditions, a true testament to Boukreev's considerable experience and heroism. Anatoli Boukreev, despite Jon Krakauer's criticisms, was the most valuable member of the expeditions caught near the summit of Everest on May 10, 1996. His heroism and courage were recognized throughout the climbing community, and these traits warranted a receipt of the American Alpine Club's prestigious David A. Sowles Memorial Award. If more climbers in 1996 were as strong as Boukreev, all of the climbers who ascended in 1996 may have been able to descend safely from Mount Everest.

Building a Fire to Fight Nature Essay

Jack London’s title for the story â€Å"To Build a Fire† starts the reader off with a very basic idea; building a fire. Almost anyone can build a fire. All it takes is a match and some kindling. London’s story is about more then building a fire, though. This story is about a man’s belief in himself, self-confidence and even arrogance, to such an extent that he doesn’t recognize the power of nature around him. London’s story is more like a â€Å"Man against Nature† story. London’s â€Å"To Build a Fire† casts a clear image that in the ever long-lasting battle between man and nature, nature is not a force that should be reckoned with. The author’s characters are even very general. The main character of the story is never given a name except to be called a â€Å"chechaqua† or newcomer in the land. â€Å"The constant struggle of Man against the natural world and physical forces which threaten to undo him at any moment is expressed greatly by this story.†(Colin) This is not a story about one individual person or one isolated incident, but a story used to illustrate a larger continuous gamble or battle between man and nature. London spends the first few paragraphs setting the physical scene. The setting is in Alaska along the Yukon River. It is close to the end of winter but the sun is still not yet in the sky. It is mentioned that this does not bother the man. The rest of the setting is described around the man and the places he has passed on this current journey and where else the trail leads in other directions. The description of the scenery is one of the most intriguing aspects of this story. London had a way of almost making the reader feel cold for the man in the story just by his descriptions of the surrounding territory. â€Å"The Yukon lay a mile wide and hidden under three feet of ice. On top of this ice was as many feet of snow. It was all pure white, rolling in gentle undulations where the ice jams of the freeze-up had formed. North and south as far as his eye could see, it was unbroken white..†(Charters, 910) The scene is set as beautiful, peaceful and cold. The harshness of this physical setting begins to become more and more clear as the story  progresses. Later the man notices that his spit is cracking and freezing before it reaches the ground. He remembers that at fifty degrees below zero spit will freeze when it hits the ground. â€Å"Undoubtedly it was colder than fifty below.†(911) This also means that there is at least 107 degrees of frost if it is truly 75 degrees below freezing. To increase the readers awareness of the cold, London describes how the mans breath is freezing on his whiskers and beard, the man is also chewing tobacco and with the temperature as cold as it is his cheeks and lips are numb and his spit tends to just end up on his beard and freezes in seconds. This man must be out of his mind to be out in the wilderness in these extreme climate conditions. â€Å"Seeing a man that oblivious to the dangers of traveling alone in colder than fifty below weather, walking on ice, and making a fire under a snow covered tree should be enough to substantiate that he was not unlucky but just plain stupid!†(Wilson) The man starts to grow this â€Å"crystal beard of the color and solidity of amber.†(912) The surroundings are beautiful, peaceful and cold but the man did not see the danger that nature could bring upon him. That it was too cold out to travel or that it could get worse â€Å"was a thought that never entered his head.†(912) The man had a native of the land with him. â€Å"At the man’s heels trotted a dog.†(911) No name is ever given to the dog in the story. Another way for London to keep the story general and the focus on the theme. The dog is a big, native Husky, a brother to the wild wolf it had the instincts to respect nature. The dog knew the temperature was too cold to be traveling but stayed at the man’s heels. The dog plays a dual role in this story. He plays the man’s conscience and natures voice and personification. â€Å"Often a dog can reflect the same personality and character traits as it’s owner. Dogs are extremely intelligent creatures and will reflect and behavior that they are exposed to for lengthy periods of time.†(Feinson, 127) The man treats the dog the same way he treats nature; with no respect. The dog is just a tool, a sled dog and later considered expendable to possibly save the man’s life. The man treats nature much the same way. The dog also shows at  the end how nature moves on. The dog stays to watch the man as he dies and once the dog realizes the man is dead he runs off to the cabin where there are â€Å"other food providers and fire providers†(921) The protagonist in the story is the unnamed man. He’s a â€Å"newcomer† to this area of Alaska and it his first winter. He is on his way to a cabin at a claim where he will meet up with â€Å"the boys.† London refers to him as a man without â€Å"imagination† but, â€Å"quick and alert in the things of life.†(910) It is this lack of imagination that makes the man unable to believe or heed the warnings of the veteran Alaskan men who told him not to travel alone when it is fifty below. One needs to have a second person to try and start a fire if the first person should fail. But, the man in the story is over confident. He stops once and makes a fire without a problem to thaw his face so he can eat his lunch. The man doesn’t notice how much the dog wants to stay at the fire. He doesn’t respect the instincts of the native animal. The trail follows along a creek, which is frozen but has natural springs along it that create small pools of water with thin ice and coatings of snow to cover them up. The man almost prides himself on how well he can spot these warning signs of possible danger. He also is increasingly happy with the pace he is keeping. The man soon falls into one of nature’s little traps, a small pool of water, and has only a few minutes to build a fire and get warm and dry before he freezes to death. He tries to stay as calm as possible but in his haste doesn’t pick a good spot to build a fire. He realizes too late when the heat from the fire he has just built starts to melt the snow in the tree branches above him and drops down smothering the fire. â€Å"A man alone in the wilderness coupled with stupidity is a deadly combination. To deal with nature takes skill and know-how, this man seems to have neither, he was doomed from the moment he went off alone.†(website) When it is 75 degrees below freezing one person doesn’t have a second chance to build a fire. The temperature is just too cold and exposed parts of the body will start to freeze. The man still believes in his strength to overcome the power of nature and continues to try and build a fire. He doesn’t succeed and at the end accepts his fate and falls asleep thinking about the next day when â€Å"the boys† would find him. The  story is an illustration of what can happen to a person that doesn’t respect nature and its power. â€Å"This is the story of a man’s struggle against nature, trying to survive against impossible odds in a universe indifferent to an individuals fate.†(909) The man was so confident in himself that he traveled with nothing but his lunch and a few matches and birch bark to start a fire. â€Å"He has also been warned not to travel alone in such cold, but he goes anyway, with only his dog and confidence for a companion.†(Synopsis, 220) He has no company, or supplies for the possibility he may confront some type of danger. Whether the danger be with another animal or with his surroundings. The short version of the story was originally published in the Boy Scouts of America Handbook. Any Boy Scout might remember the story form when they were a kid and the lessons that were taught from it when they were younger. They were taught to respect nature for what it is, what it can do, and of course, to always be prepared. If you aren’t, nature will take it’s toll, and what a deadly toll it can be.

Globalization, Education, and Talent Essay

Suarez-Orozco and Qin-Hilliard view the phenomenon of globalization almost in the same manner. To them acceleration in movement of economic activities, trade, people, and ideas across countries is globalization. They also give their consent to the fact that the concept of globalization has grabbed the attention of today’s scholars and also caused great controversy among them regarding its pluses and minuses. However, according to them there are still many areas of this phenomenon that are unexplored. In this regard they provide the example of talent and the importance of education, an area that requires immediate concerns due to the fact that â€Å"accelerating transnational dynamics† of globalization are affecting education especially at pre- collegiate level . Present generation cannot go along the same style of education in which nations mechanically copy curricula from each other. The reason is simple. The different between today’s and past generations is that today the youth have the entire world as their playground in opposition to their grandparents who were confined in the ideologies of their towns and countries. It is essential to prepare our talent in a way that they steadfastly confront the forces of globalization that are already taxing our youth, families, and nations. Thus globalization is an accelerating complexity coming out of technology, media, changing climate of politics, migration, identities, and so on. Thus today is â€Å"a new stage of the history of education† in which the needs of people and nations have changed . There are a number of challenges that need to be covered. In this time of international competition and war of talent, the empowerment of talent is something that can be tackled by identifying the physical and cognitive changes of our present and coming generations. For this we need â€Å"digital skills†, an area new technologies can assist to come over. There is dire need to develop a network which carries with it increasingly complex skills so that participation in the globally digital network becomes a material reality. Context and action both must be focused in the global scenario to polish and boost up the talent for future. For digital skills there must be interaction between self-regulated skills and mutually regulated skills to achieve broader goals of globalization. This is important because the age has already witnessed a digital revolution that in only starting to become faster and more intense yet no one knows how rapidly changes would occur in the coming future. Then there is this â€Å"youth culture† in the waves of globalization that gives us a glimpse of what is happening to our youth in transnational communications between cultures, values, fashion, and so forth. Nike-clad, hyper-visible, or apathetically underground youth of today need extra attention so that their talent can be well utilized to confront global challenges. The author points out that examining this youth culture in details reveals the fact that in no branch of study, this culture has been duly studied for its real problems, issues and complexities. In reality, the â€Å"Issues of youth culture seep into studies of globalization by way of their attention to popular culture, media, and cultural change, but there is much less focus directly on youth per se†; moreover, there is, in particular, insufficient focus on how today’s youth think about globalization; henceforth, their perspective is not known. One reason for this neglect or gap is that generally youth are seen as part of cultures, nations, and traditions across the world and are taken with them. However, today this is not enough. Thus to grapple with the complexities present to our youth in globalization and make best use of their complex talent, it is important to seriously look at the picture through the lens of the youth so that challenges, opportunities, and complexities can be fairly streamlined into a positive current. Talent empowerment will come easy through understanding the issues of today’s youth and addressing them with rightly set measures such as education at par with the current demands .

Mechanism of Vitamin D Action The WritePass Journal

Mechanism of Vitamin D Action Introduction Mechanism of Vitamin D Action ) also retaliates that once peak bone mass is reached, adults lacking vitamin D in their system will annually loose approximately 0.5% of their skeletal mass if they lack sufficient vitamin D and calcium in their systems (p.18). In addition, vitamin D deficiency can also lead to osteomalacia (DeLuca Schnoes, 1976); a mineralization defect of the collagen matrix. This condition is often accompanied by throbbing bone pain and aching (DeLuca Schnoes, 1976). Holick (2010) points out another research at the University of Pittsburgh that also established a correlation between vitamin D deficiency and increased susceptibility to bone fractures. The study measured the vitamin D levels of 400 participants with hip fractures and compared the results with the vitamin D levels of 400 other healthy women. The outcome demonstrated that individuals with the lowest levels of Vitamin D were 71 percent susceptible to bone fractures compared to those with the highest levels of vitamin D. Consequently, the role played by vitamin D in sustaining bone health can never be overemphasized. Not only does it aid in mineral absorption and bone development in intrauterine growth and childhood, but is also responsible for strong bones in adults as well. References DeLuca, H, F., and Schnoes K.K., (1976). Metabolism and Mechanism of Action of Vitamin D. Annual Review of Biochemistry. Vol. 45: 631- 637 Holick, M.F., (2010). Vitamin D: Physiology, Molecular Biology, and Clinical Applications. New York: Springer Science Business Media Watson, R.S., (2013). Handbook of Vitamin D in Human Health: Prevention, Treatment and Toxicity, Chicago: Wageningen Academic Pub.

Computer Games Have a Negative Effect on Individuals

Computer Games Have a Negative Effect on Individuals Computer Games: The Potentially Detrimental Activity Computer Games Are Addictive Quite a few Americans have grown up playing computer games – mostly for pleasure, mostly alone – and they’ve wasted a lot of time, and a lot of their health and money, doing it, too. True, some computer games may develop the user’s reasoning skills, their ability to solve problems and so on. Perhaps this is the case, but playing computer games can also have a detrimental effect on a person – especially if they are consumed by the activity to the point they neglect their everyday responsibilities and their well-being. The overuse of computer games affects a person negatively on quite a few levels, mostly one’s physical, mental and emotional health, but also their finances. This is not to say that playing computer games alone is bad for a person; however, when it begins to affect a person’s life in a negative way, it becomes a problem, and it’s a problem our society must acknowledge and work hard to fix. To begin with, let’s take a look at how the overuse of computer games negatively affects a person’s physical health. For one, consider the activity itself. Rarely are computer games played standing up or moving around; they are done mostly sedentary – and encourage a sedentary lifestyle. A person consumed by computer games spends a great deal of their leisure time sitting down. This makes for bad cardiovascular health, which means potential heart problems and strokes – and of course obesity, which causes premature death in a person. Since people in our society spend more and more of our time sitting, because technology controls our lives, it is increasingly important to live a healthy lifestyle with daily exercise. Sitting too long is bad for us, and that is precisely why the overuse of computer games is bad for a person’s health. Computer Games are Time-Consuming ?omputer games can be detrimental to a person’s mental and emotional health, a negative side effect of this time-consuming activity. Even if they enjoy playing the computer game, the user will eventually start feeling lonely, unfulfilled and out of touch with reality. This may lead to depression and anxiety, a feeling of hopelessness, unless they begin incorporating healthier activities into their daily life – such as volunteering, exercising, hanging out with friends or reading. But this is quite a challenge when a person is engulfed in such an unhealthy, time-consuming, yet much enjoyable, activity. That is much of the problem: computer games can be a lot of fun to play, so much that people will forgo human interaction and a healthy lifestyle just to continue playing the game. At this point, it almost becomes an addiction – and addictions always have negative outcomes. Virtual World cannot Substitute Reality Overuse of computer games – like with any all-consuming activity or addiction – can negatively affect a person’s financial well-being. If the user spends so much time playing the computer game that they neglect their work responsibilities, they may lose their job – which could cost them money in the long run. Perhaps it distracts them from paying their bills, their mortgage, their car payment, which then costs them more money in debt. Also, when considering how the overuse of computer games affects a person’s health, all around, it’s a no-brainer that to take care of their health problems (doctor visits, medication, hospital bills, etc.), one has to fork over more and more money. Computer games, though they may cost less than $100 to purchase, can cost a person thousands in the long run – one more negative effect that computer games have  on the individual user. To conclude this argument, that the overuse of computer games has a negative effect on individuals, it’s important to add that playing computer games is not a detrimental activity in and of itself. Only when a person is utterly consumed by a computer game – that is playing it hours and hours a day, every single day of the year – does it begin to bring negative consequences, ones that affect a person’s health (emotional, mental and emotional) and their wallet. What is the solution to this problem? It may not be a bad idea for society to financially reward people with healthy, active lifestyles. Why not give people money for having balance in their lives? Why not penalize people who spend too much of their waking hours behind a computer, consumed in a game? This is a problem we must deal with. It won’t go away on its own. It’s up to us.

Studies And Investigations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Studies And Investigations - Essay Example At the same time, the Industrial Revolution and the consolidation of people into cities over history replaced the pastoral, wild silence with rural bustle with industrial cacophony. The reaction to both of these tendencies in the twentieth century was electronic music. Though electronic music eventually combined with disco to form modern dance techno, as well as with rock-like tendencies for industrial music, electronic music began with a focus on minimalism and silence, an attempt to leverage machines for something besides noise, an attempt to find an impossible mote of quiet. Emmerson operationally defines electronic music as â€Å"music heard through loudspeakers or sound made with the help of electronic means† (2007). John Cage's music philosophy was integral to the formation and development of electronic music, presaging it. â€Å"The theories of avant-garde American composer John Cage (1912-1992) on music, sound, and silence are of more interest than his musical composi tions. To Cage, there is no such thing as silence. Music is a succession of sounds and the composer the "organizer of sounds." Historically, music has been a communication of feelings, but Cage argues that all sounds have this potential for conveying feeling in the mechanical and electronic sense... 'Any sounds in any combination and in any succession are henceforth free to be used in a musical continuity'... Silence was perhaps the pivotal aspect of Cage's theories. If silence could be shown not to exist, then feelings, too, could be pushed into the category of nonexistence† (Hermitary, 2010). Cage tried to experiment with new sounds that could emulate silence or escape the traditional confines of music and sound, letting the ear get a respite from noise. His work in randomness, while perhaps difficult to listen to, presaged performance art and electronic music (Hermitary, 2010). Cage understood sound the same way electronic musicians do: Universal to nature and man. It is no t just the plucking of a violin that is music, but a catchy phrase that can be sampled and mixed, the whirring of an engine or the brushing of an industrial lave. To Cage, disharmony is a â€Å"harmony that is not understood† (Hermitary, 2010). Cage's work was inspired by the I Ching, by Taoism. â€Å"In the 1950's, Cage hit upon a method of composition that would be the counterpart of the frequency, amplitude, timbre, duration, etc. that constitute the mechanisms of tradition composition. The avant-garde method was randomness. Cage discovered the I Ching. By tossing the coins he came to hexagrams that offered ideas, and from the ideas he developed parameters for "chance-controlled music† (Hermitary, 2010). Ultimately, the biggest contribution of Cage was the understanding of silence not as a mere pause, a break from sound, but a musical creation itself. The nature of silence is a key concept of both Eastern and Western thought. Cage understood from his popular reading s that they could converge. He applied the concept of silence to music and tried to liberate silence from feelings or context, from an social and historical context. But Cage's compositions, while making statements opposed to historical aesthetics, did not discover therein a psychology or philosophy of silence, less an aesthetics. Silence became a utilitarian tool for compositional use, not unlike those historical composers he criticized. Though he argued for the equal status of all sounds, sounds, music, had no meaning, though they did not need